In this chapter, I will present 3D models of atoms that are exceptional in some way, and their properties will be explained in subsequent chapters. For the sake of clarity and better understanding of the structure, basic isotopes without supplemental neutrons are used. Their possible positions can usually be deduced based on the analogy of isotopes of lower elements. For the same reason, the positions of the relevant electrons may not be shown on the models.
Silicon and argon
Silicon belongs to the same group as carbon, but to the third period. According to this theory, it has eight-membered rings under its valence nucleons, as shown in the 3D model of Neon. This lower shell is stretched by the binding force of the valence nucleons, but still maintains its basic shape. The consequences of this fact are then explained in the chapter on chemical bonds. In other elements (P, S and Cl), the orientation of the nucleon changes due to the pressure of other valence nucleons. This change is then shown in the 3D model of the Argon atom. This change in the orientation of the second period nucleon most likely has a direct consequence on the formation of nucleons responsible for the d electron orbitals, as will be explained in the next chapter.
Figure 36. 3D model of Silicon 28Si atom.
Figure 37. 3D model of Argon 36Ar atom.
Calcium
Calcium is a boundary element from the point of view of the sequence of elements. What is the probable reason that it is not possible to continue with the elements as in the previous period? I will try to explain the reason in this chapter. First, it is worth looking at the attached 3D model, the analysis of which we will deal with.
Figure 38. 3D model of Calcium 40Ca atom.
Ca belongs to the second group, as do Be and Mg before it and Sr, Ba and Ra after it. If we add two deuterium building blocks to the Ar atom, as shown in the previous chapter, we get a Ca atom, as shown in the picture. These new valence nucleons push on the lower shell nucleons and deform the original ring as shown in the figure below. The nucleons from the third period that are in direct contact with them are pushed out from the center to make space for new valence nucleons. This is indicated by the arrows pointing outwards. However, this will cause the ring to expand, which the remaining nucleons of the third period take advantage of and move to the center, because they have a stronger interaction with their paired nucleons.
Figure 39. Deformation of the distribution of nucleons of the third period.
The consequence is that these valence nucleons are pinched in their part pointing towards the center of the atom by nucleons from the previous layer. This further reduces their ability to pulsate at the pinched point, which according to this theory must be reflected in an increase in the pulsation of nucleons pointing outwards from the atom. The direct measurable consequence of this action according to this theory is a change in electronegativity. If we compare how the electronegativities of elements in the second group, i.e. elements with the same geometry of the valence nucleons, change, we can infer the strength of this grip. This comparison is made in the following table.
The table shows that electronegativity decreases up to Ca and then practically does not change. In the case of Be, no pinching occurs. However, it is the only one with a supplemental neutron in its 100% isotope, which also contributes to the reduction of electronegativity. In the case of magnesium, there is already a weaker clamping, but it is not so strong as to prevent the continuation of the attachment of additional p nucleons. In the case of Ca, Sr, Ba and Ra, the binding is already so strong that no further deuterium units can be added to the p positions. The expansion of the atom by additional nucleons must take place in other parts of the atoms. The following scenario is very likely, but will require further research and, if possible, computational simulations. Fortunately, by compressing the nucleons of the second period, they will expand so much that gaps appear through which additional deuterium units can be added. The connection of these units continues until the clamp is released. It is quite possible that this will result in the formation of separate rings of second-period nucleons, which will no longer be bound via the 4He plateau. This would result in the ring flattening out from a trough shape to a plane. At the same time, the opening in this ring would increase, so that the clamping would decrease enough to allow further attachment of p nucleons. But there is also another very likely change in the properties of atoms. Creating a circle, whether straight or in the shape of a tub, will very likely allow independent rotation of the center of the atom, i.e. 4He plateau and d nucleons on one side and the penultimate period of p nucleons with valence p nucleons on the other side.
Figure 40. Possibility of independent rotation
Arrows indicate the possibility of independent rotation of the atomic center.
This would explain the malleability of metals, down to the possibility of beating gold into thin slices. For a better understanding of this possibility, I recommend one of the other chapters devoted to crystal bonds.
Titanium
The following probable model of titanium will be used to explain the crystal lattice of TiO2. I apologize for any slight inaccuracies caused by manually creating the model.
Figure 41. 3D model of Titanium atom