In order to be able to explain the phenomena described above, we must try to invent some kind of particle information system. In other words, the particle must “send” some signal. A brief summary of known facts, which are necessary to take into consideration. If the first body acts on the second body with its gravity (interaction energy), then this interaction energy not only acts on the body with an attractive force, but at the same time the resulting interaction energy behind the second body is approximately the sum of the interaction energies of both bodies. So we are looking for a model that can explain both phenomena simultaneously. The particle must be able to emit interaction energy, but at the same time respond sensitively to the incident interaction energy from surrounding particles in a way that corresponds to the known behavior of matter. Last but not least, it is necessary to take into account the size of the particles, i.e. Avogadro’s number, which, in simple terms, means that 1 mole of a substance contains approximately 6*1023 particles of this substance. In practice, this means that each gram of matter contains approximately 6*1023 nucleons (protons and neutrons) and approximately half that, i.e. 3*1023 electrons. To give you a better idea, even 1 ug of matter still contains 6*1017 nucleons and the corresponding number of electrons. Why do I pay so much attention to this? It is important to note that although the phenomenon we are observing shows elements of propagation in three-dimensional space, i.e. in 3D, this may not be the case at the particle level. The resulting three-dimensional effect can only be caused by the huge number of particles involved, or by the rotation of the free particle itself. All of the above facts must be kept in mind when considering possible solutions.
According to the valid theory, the relationship between matter and energy is given by the Einstein equation E=m∙c2. This is truly an unimaginably large amount of energy hidden in matter. For the first derivation, we will use the neutron, which appears to be the basic building block of our world. In order for the neutron to emit a signal, we will need some movement of it. At the same time, the neutron should contain a huge portion of energy. The most probable movement and at the same time one of the forms of its energy will be rotation around its axis, which will also be the moment of momentum of this rotation. We can hypothetically imagine a sphere as the basic shape of a neutron in a completely rest state, because a sphere is the most natural shape with maximum spatial symmetry. In this phase, it is the energy of the flywheel, which for a rotating ball is given by the following formula
By comparison with Einstein’s equation, it follows that if we wanted to explain the mass energy only as the kinetic energy of the rotating sphere, the revolutions f would have to be unimaginably high. In this case about 1023 s-1. On the other hand, the X-ray frequency (maybe rotation?) reaches up to 1019 Hz. Interestingly, if we required the maximum speed of the circuit to be equal to the speed of light, the neutron’s spin would have to be 6*1022 s-1. In general, the maximum speed of rotation of a flywheel is limited only by its strength. For further consideration, we will content ourselves with the fact that the speed of rotation of the neutron will be incredibly high. Therefore, if the neutron rotates to the limit of its capabilities, it can be assumed that it will be deformed. Centrifugal force at the highest radius will push the mass of the neuron away from the center of rotation. Conversely, both poles will be pushed towards the center of the neutron. The neutron thus takes the form of a rotating ellipsoid.
Figure 1. Neutron as a rotating ellipsoid
As the stress in the neutron will try to return the neutron to a spherical shape, it can be expected that as the spin increases further, it will cause the neutron to pulsate. An increase in rotation will cause a greater expansion of the neutron, but according to the law of conservation of energy, the speed of rotation will decrease, just like in a pirouette, and the deformation of the neutron will decrease again – contraction phase.
Figure 2. Contraction and expansion phases of the neutron
These phases repeat cyclically. It is likely that the pulsation rate and the neutron speed of rotation are synchronized.
Figure 3. Particle pulsation
Suppose that during the expansion and contraction phases the pulses are sent out, as some basic forms of energy. In other words, particles emit interaction energy. Radial interaction energy (RIE) propagates at the speed of light in a plane perpendicular to the angular momentum. Which assumes that at a certain moment the peripheral velocity together with the neutron pulsation will reach the speed of light. For a purely peripheral speed, we arrive at the value of the rotation speed mentioned above. The intensity of the RIE then decreases with the first power of the distance from the RIE source. Axial interaction energy (AIE) probably propagates at lower speed than RIE and It will be particularly evident at shorter distances, for example in the formation of the atomic nucleus and its configurations, chemical bonds etc.. Both RIE and AIE at high intensity, i.e. near the source, exert a repulsive force on other particles. As their intensity weakens and depending on how resistant the particles are to the action of the repulsive force, i.e. whether they are free or bound in atoms, molecules, crystals, planets, stars, etc., other variants of interaction become more evident. The same mechanism is responsible for the effect of pressure on melting point. The more a particle’s degree of freedom, such as rotation, vibration, etc., is suppressed by increasing pressure or decreasing temperature, the more its interaction capabilities become apparent. The combination of RIE from all particles then creates a space with its varying density. A spining particle that pulsates with a huge frequency in such a space becomes very sensitive to its homogeneity. Such space creates a back pressure for such a particle, which counteracts the pulsation. If the space is not homogeneous, the particle then pulsates more intensely on the side with lower back pressure, which causes the particle to start moving into the space with higher back pressure.
The theory used to evaluate the experimental data determines the conclusion of the experiment. I will demonstrate the truth of this statement on a derived neutron model using a simplified hypothetical example. Let’s imagine an experiment measuring particle properties by measuring its interaction energy. If we measure a free neutron that is rotating rapidly, we will find some average value of its RIE and AIE. If we manage to get the neutron into certain limiting positions, we may be able to measure only its AIE as a weak interaction or, conversely, its RIE as a strong interaction. We thus receive three signals for evaluation. According to the current theory based on the Standard Model, which does not include the physical essence of the interaction mechanism at all, you can easily conclude that these are three different particles!! Or that the neutron has been split into subparticles. If we evaluate the experiment according to PIV theory, on the contrary, we can conclude that this is a single particle that was measured under three different conditions. It is the absence of a physical basis for the interaction mechanism in the Standard Model and its derivatives that makes it prone to incorrect conclusions – Scimeras.
I asked AI for the definition of a mathematician, and this is what it replied:
Focus: A mathematician explores the full scope of mathematics, including not just arithmetic but also algebra, geometry, calculus, trigonometry, number theory, statistics, and more.
Scope: The study of quantity, structure, space, and change, involving abstract concepts, rigorous proofs, logical reasoning, and the formulation of new theories and conjectures.
Nature of Work: Their work goes beyond mere calculation; they seek to uncover patterns, establish truths through rigorous deduction from axioms, and develop mathematical models to solve complex real-world challenges across various fields like physics, computer science, and engineering.
I’ll add my definition of a really good mathematician.
He is able to correctly understand and solve even very complicated word problems. Throughout the solution and even after successfully solving it, he still has slight doubts about whether he understood the problem correctly. Because for a correctly solved but misunderstood task, there are zero points!! To dispel his doubts about the correct understanding of the tasks, he searches for more and more information from all relevant fields beyond those that were in the assignment and looks for more and more connections among them that would confirm his solution as independently as possible. And that’s what distinguishes a mathematician from an arithmetician. And also, what a true scientist should do, trying to understand the behavior of matter, which is the ultimate challenge. And that’s exactly what this work is trying to do. Find as many connections as possible and maximize the probability that understanding will be precise.
Proton
Under Earth conditions, the neutron is unstable. The lifetime of a free neutron outside the atomic nucleus is about 880 s. One of the questions is whether the neutron reacts to heat? If we compare the molar heat capacities of Helium, Neon and Argon, which do not form gas molecules, but are only in atomic form, see the table:
Table 1. Molar heat capacity of the noble gases
As evident from the table above, the count of nucleons by itself has no impact on heat molar capacity. But it is also possible that the nucleons in these nuclei are so tightly packed that their ability to store thermal energy is very limited. Neither the neutron nor the proton seem to respond to heat by themselves. Another parameter is probably responsible for the instability of the neutron. The free neutron decays into a proton and an electron, and forms a hydrogen atom. According to the current theory, a proton is positively charged and an electron is negatively charged. But it is not at all clear where the electron is split off from the neutron, where the localized charges are, or how the information about the charges is transmitted through space. So, we will continue the reasoning from the previous chapter. One of them is that the free neutron after leaving the nucleus has much more energy than it can absorb. Another possibility is that the neutron is forced to increase its energy by interacting with its surroundings, which we don’t know much about yet. Its spin and pulsation gradually increase until it exceeds the imaginary strength of the flywheel. The electron is therefore most likely to be formed from the most stressed matter, and that is precisely the material on the circumference in the center of the neutron. An electron is about 1840 times lighter than a neutron. If we assumed their same “density”, then in the shape of a sphere the radius of the electron would be about 12 times smaller than the radius of the neutron. By separating of the electron, the neutron is split into two parts as shown in the folowwing picture and a proton is created, the radial pulses of which is thus divided into two parts with a gap in the middle. At the same time, the geometry will change. A proton has a smaller radius but is wider in the axial direction. In addition, it will begin to pulsate internally axially. Theoretically, after this change, the proton is able to further increase its energy, i.e. spin and pulsation. This flattens the proton and changes the geometry of its pulse, so that the electron is pushed further away from the proton, as will be shown below.
Figure 4. The birth of the hydrogen atom
The entire change between phases 3 and 4 is very rapid and likely occurs within a single emission of neutron radial interaction energy. At the same time, the geometry of the radial interaction energy changes and the electron moves rapidly. Current theory calls this transition the emission of a neutrino particle. Since the neutrino has zero rest mass, just like a photon, it is probably not a real particle, but rather an accumulated emission of the radial energy of the newly formed proton and electron.
The geometry of the proton and its interaction energies are shown in the following figure.
Figure 5. Proton pulsation
The electron is confined in the gap between pulses.
Proton-electron bond
Electrons are strongly bound in atoms and the ionization energies for their separation are really high. Electron is held in the gap of the proton radial pulses – Proton Radial Interaction Energy (PRIE). The radial pulses of the electron -Electron Radial Interaction Energy (ERIE) thus interact with the internal axial side of the proton. And the PRIE interacts with the axial side of the electron. This arrangement is much more efficient than if the RIE of both particles interact with radial sides because the reaction surface is much larger and the resulting repulsive forces are much weaker due to the particle geometry. The incident RIE then limits both the axial pulsation of the particle at the point of interaction and the subsequent radial pulsation. In order for the particle to emit the same amount of energy, it must pulsate more intensely symmetrically on the opposite side of the interaction, by exactly the same amount as it was forced to pulsate less at the point of interaction. So, as a result, the RIE might appear to have passed through the particle. This is true only energetically, but actually the geometry of the pulse has changed. As can be seen from the following picture. The uneven distribution of the intensity of the RIE emission then causes the particle to develop a force that pushes it against the incoming RIE.
Figure 6. Proton and electron pulsation
In this case, however, the total amount of proton RIE interacting with the electron is much higher than the electron is able to absorb and transform. The excess of PRIE thus pushes it further away from the proton. The intensity of the PRIE decreases with the first power of the distance from the proton. Thus, the electron is pushed to a distance where the force repelling the electron from the proton and the attractive force resulting from the interaction of the electron with the PRIE are balanced. Electron then oscillates around this equilibrium state. Since the PRIE hits both axial surfaces of the neutron equally, the electron is pushed from both sides into the center of the radial proton pulse. This ensures that the electron is constantly held in the gap of PRIE even during the motion of the proton. The free motion of the electron is therefore restricted only to the radial direction to the position of the proton. This interaction ensures the directional stability of both particles, so that their radial sides always point towards each other.
Figure 7. The electron held in the gap follows the motion of the proton
This configuration also allows the electron to control the proton if its configuration in the nucleus allows it. For example, during chemical reactions, crystallizations, etc. if an electron hits an incoming PRIE from another atom, the electron tends to turn in the direction of the incoming pulse. The electron thereby directs its RIE to the opposite inner axial side of its own proton and, according to the principle described above, this proton tends to tilt towards the electron so as to achieve directional stability again. Through this mechanism, the electron helps establish the directional stability of the emerging chemical or crystal bond.
Figure 8. The electron uses its pulses to make the proton to turn
In the ground state, the electron RIE aim at the center of the proton and thus exert the same repulsive force on both halves of the proton. Some simple chemical bonds, depending on the configuration of the nuclei of both atoms, have the possibility of rotation. If for some reason the electron turns them as shown in the following figure, its RIE will cause the proton, if the configuration of the nucleus allows it, to start turn along with the electron. In the case of a chemical bond, both bonding electrons and both protons of course participate in the rotation
Figure 9. The electron uses its pulses to make the proton to turn
According to the above examples, in this study it is indeed possible that the proton and the electron control each other by their RIE. The small size of the electron relative to the width of the proton RIE ensures directional stability of the electron to the proton over a relatively large distance. Proton RIE, which is not saturated with electron RIE, can, under suitable conditions, literally steal an electron over a greater distance – tunnel effect, electric discharge.
Neutron-proton-electron bond
Bond neutron-proton is in the fact very similar to bond proton-electron. The same rules apply in both cases, except for one thing. Due to its size, the neutron is able to nearly fully interact with the proton RIE and vice versa. The gradual formation of the bond until the equilibrium state is established is shown in the following figure. Both RIE and AIE expel all the particles from their source. Particles that have so much energy that they pulsate themselves also gain the ability to be flexible and can thus interact with the incoming interaction energy themselves
In the first phase, the neutron and proton are without interaction with each other. Both RIE and AIE have symmetrical intensity for both particles.
In the second phase, the PRIE acts on the axial sides of the neutron. Due to the geometry of the neutron, the repulsive force is relatively small, but the reaction of the neutron is strong. Its intensity of AIE and RIE from the proton side are suppressed and, conversely, they are amplified on the opposite side. As a result, the attractive force is greater than the repulsive force and the neutron begins to approach the proton. By the same effect, when the neutron RIE acts on the inner axial sides of the proton, the proton begins to approach the neutron.
As the two particles gradually approach each other, the repulsive forces of both RIE increase, while the ability of both particles to interact with these pulses is limited and the attractive forces increase slowly. In the third phase, the two particles reach an equilibrium distance, where the mutual repulsive and attractive forces balance each other. Any change from this equilibrium distance will cause a rapid increase in the attractive or repulsive force, which will bring the particles back to an equilibrium state. Considering the size of both particles relative to the width of their RIEs, it cannot be expected that their RIEs would be able to direct the other particle into an attractive interaction position, as is the case for an electron and a PRIE. Also, maintaining directional stability over a longer distance with respect to disruptive ambient interactions predetermines this interaction as very strong, but sustainable over a short distance. Once a particles lose directional stability and turn, their interaction energies pushes them apart. Within the framework of the interaction, it can be expected that their mutual pulsations, i.e. the RIE and AIE emissions, will be synchronized in a certain sense, i.e. that the equilibrium distance between the particles will also take into account the propagation speed of the RIE propagation, i.e. the speed of light.
Figure 10. Neutron-proton equilibrium state, including depiction of axial and radial pulse deformation
Thickness expresses the intensity of the IE.
The result of this interaction is a strong mutual attraction is shown in the following figure.
Figure 11. Neutron-proton interaction
The area for the electron is marked in green.
The consequence of this interaction is that the intensity of the proton RIE on the side away from the neutron is higher by the contribution of the neutron which will also change its geometry. As a result of this interaction, the equilibrium point for the electron is moved further from the proton.
Figure 12. Weak and strong radial proton pulses
Black – strong narrow radial proton pulse, for example alkali metals
Red – weak broad radial proton pulse, for example halogens
By combining both parameters, the intensity and width of the radial proton pulse, the properties of both the electron orbital and the nature of the chemical bond can be changed. An ionic chemical bond is formed by a combination of an intense and narrow radial pulse with a wide and weak radial pulse. Conversely, a covalent chemical bond is formed by radial pulses of similar properties.
Electron orbitals
In this chapter I will focus on electron orbitals from the perspective of PIV theory. First, we will analyze the relationships in the simplest atom, hydrogen, and then in deuterium as the simplest atom containing a neutron. According to current theory, the electron orbits around the proton, which is certainly acceptable. Let’s start from the position of the electron at time t0. The electron emits its RIE, which propagates at the speed of light and the proton hits it at time t1. The proton reacts to this by deforming its own RIE, which then propagates into the surroundings again at the speed of light. The lowest value of the proton RIE is emitted in the direction of the incoming electron RIE. This RIE then reaches the distance to the electron at time t2, which is approximately twice the value of t1. During this time, the electron moves to a new position, where it is hit by the proton RIE that was deformed based on the electron RIE at time t0. The electron thus enters the proton RIE gradient, where its intensity is higher on the front side and lower on the back side of the electron from the perspective of the electron’s movement. The situation is shown in the following figure.
Figure 13. Electron orbital in hydrogen atom
The front side of the electron is thus affected by a slightly greater intensity of proton RIE than the back side. Because the electron moves around the equilibrium position, the resulting effect of this difference depends on the exact position of the electron. If the electron is further from the proton than the equilibrium position, then the front part of the electron is attracted more than the back part, and the resulting force pushes the electron forward with a slight inclination towards the proton. If, on the other hand, the electron is closer to the proton, then the front part is repelled more than the back part of the electron and the electron is thus pushed forward with a slight inclination away from the proton. By this mechanism, the electron is forced to orbit around the proton and oscillate around an equilibrium value.
The Bohr model, i.e. a proton around which an electron orbits in 3D space, can be obtained by rotating the hydrogen atom as shown in Figure 7. Theoretically, it would be possible to switch to Quantum Mechanics. The s, p and d orbitals, i.e. some kind of equilibrium states, can be obtained by a combination of frequencies of electron orbit and atomic rotation. Quantum mechanics assumes that the solution to the behavior of the hydrogen atom can be applied to other elements. In practice, however, this very often does not work out and Quantum Mechanics has to resort to auxiliary solutions. For a better understanding, I will use a model of a carbon atom. A carbon atom has 4 equivalent electrons in its ground state, as evident from the methane molecule. According to quantum mechanics, however, it should have two s-type electrons and two p-type electrons, with different energy states. Which is an obvious contradiction with the theory, casting doubt on its correctness. That is why the so-called hybridization was think out. In the case of carbon, there are three hybridizations for three different situations. It’s like adding three variables to a mathematical formula to get three different results that correspond to three different situations. However, such an equation then loses its meaning. Not long ago, I would have agreed with the statement that describing a process with an equation is the highest goal. But I realized that a much more important goal is to understand the essence of the process itself. Because the correct mathematical solution to a misunderstood process is not a generally valid solution, but only a mathematical approximation that describes the process only under certain, usually laboratory conditions. So yes, you could switch to Quantum Mechanics, but it’s the same as switching from a modern electric locomotive to a steam locomotive. It is much wiser to continue developing PIV theory and try to explain as many processes as possible across disciplines, such as chemistry, astrophysics, biochemistry and others. Conversely, by explaining these processes, we can understand the nature of matter. As mentioned above, Quantum Mechanics tries to apply the solution from the hydrogen atom model to other elements, but as I will show in the next paragraph, the presence of a neutron in the deuterium atomic nucleus dramatically changes the rules of the game
The basic scheme of deuterium is shown in Figure 11, but several other relationships need to be specified to create a more accurate picture. From the previously estimated dimensional ratios between the electron and proton, we can assume that the width of the electron RIE will be about 1/12 of the proton RIE width. Let’s say about 8%. For future iterative calculations, we can use values of 10 to 6% as an initial estimate of the gap width in proton RIE. Theoretically, the gap size can vary both in absolute and relative terms, and may not even be the same size over the entire circumference of a single pulse. All of this should be taken into account in iterative optimizations. If we roughly estimate the ratio of the width of neutron RIE to approximately half that of proton RIE, it is evident that the gap will not disappear with the combination of proton and neutron RIE. This combined RIE is still able to hold the electron, only the repulsive force increases and the electron is thus pushed further away from the nucleus. It is also necessary to take into account the distribution of proton and neutron RIE intensities according to Figure 10. The intensity of neutron RIE in the direction towards the proton and in its immediate vicinity is much lower than the intensity of proton RIE in the direction towards the electron. The area for electron movement may actually be wider than the area marked in green in Figure 11. Another important parameter is the shape of the proton RIE itself and the fact that the intensity of proton RIE is highest in the direction of the neutron-proton axis. This axis divides the area defined for the electron into two parts. The proton RIE has the lowest intensity at both edges of this area, just before the neutron RIE begins to appear. These two positions with the lowest repulsive effect are optimal for the electron to occur. To move from one position to the other, the electron must overcome the energy barrier given by the curvature of the proton RIE. The overall situation is shown in the following figure.
Figure 14. Electron orbital in deuterium atom
Legend:
The first image is a part of image 11 with the cut for the next image marked in black. Two equivalent optimal positions for an electron are marked in dark green, labeled 1 and 2. The second image shows the intensity distribution of proton RIE in red and neutron RIE in blue across the section of the first image. Two equivalent optimal positions for an electron are marked in dark green, labeled 1 and 2. The third image shows the intensity distribution of proton RIE in red and neutron RIE in blue across the yellow-marked slice in the second image. The total resulting intensity of the sum of proton and neutron RIE is indicated in purple.
One likely variant of the proton-neutron interaction is that their pulsations are synchronized in some way. This means that the impact of a strongly intense neutron RIE on a proton will cause an immediate reaction in the form of proton RIE emission and vice versa. If we assume the previously derived value of the neutron RIE emission frequency to be approximately 6×1022, then the distance between individual emissions, taking into account the speed of light, would be 5×10-15 m, in other words one neutron circumference. Therefore, if we placed the proton and neutron at half the distance, it would be possible to achieve the desired synchronization. For the whole system to work as follows, the neutron RIE would reach the proton from its emission exactly half the time before the next emission. This would excite the proton RIE emission, so that further on both RIEs in the direction from both particles would merge into one. The proton RIE would reach the neutron just at the time when the next neutron RIE emission should occur. Of course, if the system were able to operate in a forced mode of higher RIE emission frequency, the distance between the two particles would be reduced accordingly. It is worth recalling that according to the current theory based on the Standard Model a mysterious subparticle, the gluon, gradually appears on the surface of each nucleon with a frequency of approximately 1024, which holds the nucleus together. How it achieves this is as mysterious as the subparticle itself. It is possible that it warps space-time around it in such a way that other particles are so frightened by it that they prefer to hold on tightly to their positions (sarcasm). And just as one can invent a subparticle called the graviton, which mediates gravity, one can also invent others, such as the thermon, which is responsible for temperature, or the pressuron, which is responsible for pressure (next sarcasm).
Electromagnetic radiation
According to the PIV theory, all electromagnetic radiation is based on the RIE of basic atomic particles, i.e. neutron, proton and electron. The speed of light is thus determined by the speed of propagation of RIE and therefore the speeds of propagation of gravity and light are the same. If the emitted RIE is smooth from the particle’s perspective, i.e. without sudden changes such as vibrations, rotation, etc., it manifests itself in our world only through its gravitational effect. When particles vibrate, for example in the case of a chemical bond, the particles participating in this bond vibrate, the bond is compressed and stretched, as a result of which their RIE waves are formed in the infrared region. It can be assumed that the largest part of this radiation is the movement-vibration of the electron, as the lightest particle mediating a chemical bond, which will be highly sensitive to the slightest changes in the positions of the binding protons will exhibit the largest amplitude. An interesting variation is the rotation of the particle. In this case, a vortex RIE is created in the axis of rotation. While outside this axis the RIE gradually spreads to different sides of space, in the rotation axis this RIE still spreads in the same direction, and has a rotational character, as shown in the following figure.
Figure 15. Proton rotation around an axis
If such rotation occurs very quickly, such radiation can acquire remarkable properties. The most interesting cases will include electron rotation within proton RIE. If we return to the electron orbital in the deuterium atom in Figure 14, then the transition of the electron from point 1 to point 2 means a transition to a part with the opposite gradient of the proton RIE. It is very likely that such a transition will require a flip of the electron so that its spin is consistent with this gradient. Other effects may include, for example, irregularities in pulse intensities. If a particle reaches a position where its regular pulse is strongly suppressed due to interaction with surrounding particles, the subsequent RIE emission can, on the contrary, be very strong.
The other main interactions between particles
The resulting interaction between two particles depends on several main parameters. These include the geometry of the individual particles and thus also their interaction energies, the size of the particles, the angle of interaction, the exact location on the particle that interacts, the combination of axial or radial interaction energies, possible fixation of the particle in the system, etc. E.g. theoretically, two free electrons in space will attract each other up to a certain extent, but if they are located in a radial proton interaction energie that compresses them in the axial direction, their mutual interaction is significantly limited and the result is that they repel each other much more. Therefore, it is necessary to assess each interaction in the atoms individually, as will be commented for each individual isotopic nucleus of the element in the next chapter.
The strongest radial interaction is between a proton and a neutron as explained above. The radial interaction between two protons or neutrons is significantly smaller, moreover, since it is the interaction of the radial part of the particle, this interaction does not have directional stability and these particles tend to slip out of this interaction. It can be assumed that their equilibrium distance will be greater than in the case of a proton-neutron interaction
Axial particle interaction energies are likely to propagate more slowly and have much less intensity and range. However, the total energies of the radial and axial interaction energies should theoretically be the same. On the other hand, it is likely that axial interaction energie intensity decreases much more slowly with distance from the particle than in the case of radial pulses. But even these have their contribution in the nuclear power game. Outside the nucleus of the atom are e.g. responsible for the form of hydrogen crystallization at temperatures below about 14 K, when the thermal energy of the atoms is lower than the interaction energy in the axial direction. The hydrogen atom is surrounded by six other atoms in the radial direction, while in the axial direction it is always surrounded by one on each side.The crystal structure of molecular hydrogen can be found on this page.
https://winter.group.shef.ac.uk/webelements/hydrogen/crystal_structure_pdb.html
Because it is only a crystalline structure of protons and electrons, it is ideal for exploring the possibilities of individual types of interactions. From the given crystal structure it is not clear which molecules interact with each other and in what way. The main reason is the lack of free electrons whose positions could experimentally help to clarify these bonds. I will try to construct a crystal lattice using PIV theory. First, a few facts that need to be taken into account to solve the task. First, let’s analyze the chemical bond of the hydrogen molecule itself. It consists of two protons that are approximately 74 pm apart. Between them are two electrons, which maintain the planarity of the entire system with their radial interaction energies. If we were to remove one of the electrons, the entire system would become unstable and would disintegrate due to thermal energy. Geometrically, a hydrogen molecule resembles a rhombus, with protons or electrons located at opposite corners. Due to mutual interactions, the interaction energy emissions of all particles are deformed so that their minimum intensities are directed towards the imaginary center of the bond (rhombus) and their maximums are directed outwards from the center. This deformation then induces a force that pushes all particles towards the center of the bond, counteracting the repulsive force that the particles exert on each other. From the above distribution of particles, it can be assumed that proton radial interaction energies will be most strongly emitted from the molecule in the direction away from the protons, which could interact weakly (i.e. at a greater distance) with electron radial energies of electrons from neighboring molecules. A hydrogen molecule with the indicated geometries of radial interaction energies is shown in the following figure
Figure 16. Hydrogen molecule H2
And since hydrogen molecules are planar, the entire plateau of interacting hydrogen molecules created in this way will also be planar. As mentioned, these bonds are very weak, which corresponds to the very low boiling point of hydrogen of 20.3 K at normal pressure. When analyzing the crystal structure of hydrogen, we focus on finding regularly repeating planar plates. From the crystal data it follows that the dimensions of the crystal cell are 340, 470 and 470 pm. However, crystallography is only generally descriptive and does not contain actual data on the bonds between actually interacting molecules. But it still creates some idea of the distances in the crystal lattice relative to the chemical bond length of the hydrogen molecule. The interaction between individual plates is mediated by axial interaction energies, especially of protons. The attractive capabilities of axial interactions will be more likely to be zero and the plates will tend to repel each other. The only force that can hold the plates together is the gas pressure. This is also reflected in the very low melting point of only 14 K. It can be assumed that at absolutely zero pressure, all solid hydrogen would sublime relatively quickly. Even so, the pressure would have to overcome the repulsive force of the axial interaction energy and it can be expected that the plates would be relatively far apart. But the crystal lattice suggests nothing of the sort, so what is the possible solution? This means that the plates do not exert their axial energies directly against each other, but are offset from each other so that interactions are minimal. With regard to maintaining a certain symmetry, it can be expected that the neighboring (second) plateau will be shifted, but the next (third) plateau will already be aligned with the first. When analyzing a crystal lattice, in the above link, we focus on finding planes that are alternately shifted and still have the same spacing from each other. And indeed, it is possible to find this design, as shown in the image below (side view). By rotating it 90° (floor plan), we then reveal the arrangement of hydrogen molecules in the plate.
Figure 17. Crystal lattice of the H2 molecule
where molecules belonging to the odd-numbered plate are marked in blue and molecules belonging to the even-numbered plate in red. A plate pattern showing the orientation of hydrogen molecules and indicating the actual crystal cell is shown in the following figure.
Figure 18. H2 crystal plate pattern
The crystal cell is formed by a rhombus, shown in black. The longer diagonal, labeled “a”, connects hydrogen molecules that are oriented towards each other with their protons. The length of the diagonal is given by the intensities of the RIEs of both protons, which reach their maximum in this direction. The shorter diagonal connects hydrogen molecules that are oriented towards each other by their electrons. The length of the diagonal is determined by the intensities of electron RIE, which are generally weaker than proton RIE due to the difference in masses, and by the possibilities of interactions of the facing sides of the protons. It is the electrons from both molecules that keep this cell in a plane. The result of the interaction between molecules is changes in the arrangement of individual particles in the H2 molecule compared to its isolated state. The molecules suppress each other’s interaction energy intensities, so they undergo a slight deformation, when the interaction energy intensity towards the center of the molecule increases slightly, as a result of which the distance between them increases. In other words, the HH bond length increases slightly and the distance between the electrons also increases, which increases their effect of keeping the cell in a plane. It is worth noting the differences between the molecules inside the crystal and the molecules at its edge. In the picture above, there is only one inner H2 molecule, which is surrounded on all sides by other molecules. These surrounding molecules act on the inner molecule symmetrically from all sides, so this inner molecule does not exert any force that would push it in any direction. This is not the case for molecules at the edge of the crystal. The interaction effect of the internal molecules on them is not compensated for, so these molecules exert a force that pushes them towards the crystal. It can be said that it is the molecules at the edge that hold the crystal together. Next, in the analysis of the crystal lattice, we will focus on the position of two neighboring plates. Adjacent plates are shifted apart in such a way that each molecule is surrounded by three plate molecules on both sides. And because they interact with each other through their axial interaction energies, they tend to repel each other. So their arrangement is such that they repel each other as little as possible. In a way, each molecule is trapped between six other molecules, which surround it, three on each side, as shown in the next picture.
Figure 19. Detail of the crystal lattice of the H2 molecule
where the emissions of axial interaction energies are shown in blue. If we focus on the plateau at the edge position, which does not have molecules surrounded on both sides, the thought creeps in whether this arrangement is not able to create a small attractive force only in the case of protons. The proton can also be viewed as a partially split particle, with the left and right axial sides capable of partially independent interactions. The symmetrical action of three axial interaction energies, whose intensity and therefore repulsive force is sufficiently small, on one of these sides of the proton can theoretically cause both the radial and axial pulsations of the proton on this side to decrease slightly. Such a proton then does not have the same emission of interaction energies on both sides, and the result can be the emergence of a small attractive force towards the center between these three sources of axial energy. If this were the case, it would be further proof that nature can always surprise, even when one might think they already know a lot. In such a case, the crystal structure of hydrogen could be relatively stable even at almost zero pressure.
Figure 20. 3D model of the hydrogen crystal lattice
Based on this new information, I will try to estimate what happens to the crystal lattice of molecular hydrogen under extremely high pressures and temperatures. To do this, you need to analyze the phase diagram of hydrogen, as shown in the image below, which was taken from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Phase_diagram_of_hydrogen.svg
Figure 21. Phase diagram of hydrogen
Currently, four crystal structures of hydrogen are known depending on temperature and pressure, for example as given here https://www.sci.news/physics/article01131-hydrogen-phase-iv.html
I will not deal with the various intermediate states, but with the main change, when molecular hydrogen goes from a crystal state to a state known as a “Metallic solid”. First, again, an analysis of the facts. The diagram shows that at a really high pressure, about 106 bar, molecular hydrogen can be kept in a solid state up to a temperature of about 3000 K. Further increasing the pressure above approximately 107 bar creates a solid structure, designated as a “metallic solid”, which should be stable up to temperatures around 2000 K. The term metallic is important because it means that there are free electrons that should be able to conduct electric current. Which means that the hydrogen molecules that held the electrons trapped in the chemical bond broke apart. The structure is therefore made up of hydrogen atoms and the electrons in the lattice have gained a certain degree of freedom. As mentioned earlier, hydrogen molecules in a crystal lattice interact with each other in such a way that they suppress each other’s chemical bond strength. As we increase the pressure, the hydrogen molecules are pushed closer and closer together. The closer they are, the weaker the chemical bond in the molecules. Beyond a certain point, the hydrogen molecules break down into individual atoms. The freed electrons can move around the lattice, but they still keep the individual plates in a planar state. If they didn’t, the lattice would break down and the hydrogen wouldn’t be in a solid state. They can now orbit the protons relatively freely, pushing each other over. It can be assumed that the crystal lattice will undergo certain changes. The distance between the atoms will decrease and the arrangement in the plate will also change. Since each proton, i.e. each point in the lattice, emits radial interaction energy symmetrically, the surrounding atoms must be at the same distance from it. Looking at the “floor plan” in Figure 15, the free spaces between the hexagons are clearly visible. It can be assumed that at such high pressure these free spaces will no longer exist. If we look at Figure 16, the length of diagonal a is reduced so that both diagonals are now the same length. The new structure will most likely look like the image below.
Figure 20. Probable crystal lattice of atomic hydrogen
where atoms belonging to the odd-numbered plate are marked in red and atoms belonging to the even-numbered plate in orange. The individual plates are now shifted relative to each other in such a way that each atom is symmetrically surrounded by four atoms from each of the neighboring plates. This is the tightest arrangement. A plate pattern showing the hydrogen atoms and indicating the actual crystal cell is shown in the following figure.
Figure 21. Atomic hydrogen crystal plate pattern
This type of crystal lattice is generally referred to as a Body-Centered Tetragonal (BCT) structure.
The question arises, what are the possibilities of nuclear reactions in such a crystal lattice. I will try to answer it. First, again, an analysis of known facts. Now we will try to imagine the conditions inside a star, such as our sun. It would be a huge mistake to imagine a homogeneous entity. We start with temperature, which is a manifestation of the internal energy of a system, which is usually understood as rotational, vibrational and kinetic energy. However, the manifestation of internal energy depends on specific conditions. Let us imagine an unbalanced centrifuge that vibrates strongly. If we were to convert this manifestation into temperature, then we would say that this body has a high temperature. And now we heavily load or clamp this centrifuge. Its vibrations will drop sharply and we would assign it a low temperature, although the internal energy of the centrifuge has not changed. And this is exactly how temperature needs to be understood, including the phase diagram in Figure 21. A thermonuclear reaction takes place inside a star, releasing a large amount of energy that can be converted into heat, electromagnetic radiation, etc. However, the particles are tightly packed together and therefore the manifestation of this energy is significantly limited. This creates regions that have high internal energy, but in order to release this energy, it must be transported to the outer part of the sun. Strong currents can be expected between the outer and inner parts of the sun, which intersect in various ways. Since the sun radiates a more or less stable amount of energy over a very long period of time, it is difficult to imagine that this could be achieved without some degree of self-regulation. It is assumed that the amount of hydrogen in the sun, expressed as a percentage of atoms, is 92%, and in terms of mass, about 75%. In what form is hydrogen found inside the sun, where it is not only subjected to enormous pressure and high temperature, but also to interaction energy, i.e. gravity, corresponding to approximately 1057 nucleons? This is atomic hydrogen, where the manifestation of its internal energy is strongly limited mainly by pressure, i.e. the interaction energy of the nearest surroundings acting on the distance reduced by pressure, and by gravity, i.e. the total density of interaction energies of all nucleons. The emission of its own interaction energy is thus suppressed, which is reflected in a larger width of the radial interaction energy and therefore a widened gap within it. This change in RIE geometry means that the electrons are now closer to their protons. In some cases, a combination of fluctuations in the factors involved will cause the proton to absorb its electron and convert into a neutron. Regarding the arrangement, we will be interested in the upper right corner of the hydrogen phase diagram in Figure 18. The term plasma can be understood as a dense mixture of rapidly rotating, vibrating particles, where even electrons have such high energy that they form electron clouds or flows. Some of the electrons have probably escaped the grip of the proton RIEs and are moving freely outside them. On the contrary, they are repelled by these RIEs of rotating protons, because getting back into them in such a dense environment means overcoming a high energy barrier. The probability that a nuclear reaction, which requires the correct directional orientation of the interacting particles, could occur in such an environment is small, although not impossible. The second form, which is in the upper right corner, is a state labeled “metallic fluid”. What can we imagine under that? The term “metallic” is absolutely essential, as it will help us understand what it is all about. If the form of the state is to have behavior that can be described as metallic, it must have free, i.e. non-bonding electrons, and it must also have proton RIE overlaps so that these electrons can move freely. That is, such as the form designated as “metallic solid”. The term “fluid” means that it is relatively soft and has the properties of a liquid. n our case, it is a state of atomic hydrogen that already has so much energy that it cannot permanently maintain a crystal lattice. But it does not have so much energy that it cannot create one at all. It can be expected that smaller crystal structures are constantly formed in such a fluid, which in turn break up and rearrange relatively quickly. If a neutron is enclosed in such a lattice, or if it is created directly in it, it will have a planar orientation like the surrounding protons, which will maintain it in this position. So these are mainly the four nearest neighbors and then the other four in diagonal positions. This is already quite sufficient force to maintain the planar structure, which is a necessary condition for a nuclear reaction. Protons under such conditions will be very close to a state similar to phase 4 in Figure 4. Thus, their RIEs will be broad with a wide gap in the middle. A trapped neutron, using its RIE, pushes the electrons of the surrounding protons into the shadow behind its protons, as shown in the following figure, and then it is essentially no longer prevented from carrying out a nuclear reaction with one of the surrounding protons.
Figure 24. Neutron in hydrogen crystal lattice
Nuclear reactions release a large amount of energy, so the state of matter changes from “metallic fluid” to “plasma”, which essentially stops nuclear reactions. This is the self-regulating process that ensures the long-term stability of a star. The plasma must transfer the released energy to the outer layers, e.g. by flowing, from where it then spreads further into the surroundings of the sun. After reaching the surface, due to the reduction in pressure and changes in the geometry of the sun’s interaction energy (gravity), the matter in the form of plasma begins to release the accumulated energy, which manifests itself as a solar storm. During this process, free neutrons contained in the plasma, i.e. those that were formed in the interior of the sun but did not have time to react with protons into higher elements, decay back into hydrogen atoms as shown in Figure 4. This is reflected in the simultaneous emission of neutrinos. After cooling, the matter returns back to the interior of the sun. In addition to 4He, nuclear reactions can produce not only deuterium, but also 3He or 3H. All of these are planar systems that can be incorporated again into the crystal lattice of atomic hydrogen and undergo another nuclear reaction, until the final product 4He.