In order to be able to explain the phenomena described above, we must try to invent some kind of particle information system. In other words, the particle must “send” some signal. According to the valid theory, the relationship between matter and energy is given by the well-known Einstein equation E=m∙c2. This is truly an unimaginably large amount of energy hidden in matter. For the first derivation, we will use the neutron, which appears to be the basic building block of our world. In order for the neutron to emit a signal, we will need some movement of it. At the same time, the neutron should contain a huge portion of energy. The most probable movement and at the same time one of the forms of its energy will be rotation around its axis, which will also be the moment of momentum of this rotation. We can hypothetically imagine a sphere as the basic shape of a neutron in a completely rest state, because a sphere is the most natural shape with maximum spatial symmetry. In this phase, it is the energy of the flywheel, which for a rotating ball is given by the following formula
By comparison with Einstein’s equation, it follows that if we wanted to explain the mass energy only as the kinetic energy of the rotating sphere, the revolutions f would have to be unimaginably high. In this case about 1023 s-1. On the other hand, the X-ray frequency (maybe rotation?) reaches up to 1019 Hz. Interestingly, if we required the maximum speed of the circuit to be equal to the speed of light, the neutron’s spin would have to be 6∙1022 s-1. In general, the maximum speed of rotation of a flywheel is limited only by its strength. For further consideration, we will content ourselves with the fact that the speed of rotation of the neutron will be incredibly high. Therefore, if the neutron rotates to the limit of its capabilities, it can be assumed that it will be deformed. Centrifugal force at the highest radius will push the mass of the neuron away from the center of rotation. Conversely, both poles will be pushed towards the center of the neutron. The neutron thus takes the form of a rotating ellipsoid.
Neutron as a rotating ellipsoid
As the stress in the neutron will try to return the neutron to a spherical shape, it can be expected that as the spin increases further, it will cause the neutron to pulsate. An increase in rotation will cause a greater expansion of the neutron, but according to the law of conservation of energy, the speed of rotation will decrease, just like in a pirouette, and the deformation of the neutron will decrease again – contraction phase.
Contraction and expansion phases of the neutron
These phases repeat cyclically. It is likely that the pulsation rate and the neutron speed of rotation are synchronized.
Particle pulsation
Radial pulses propagate at the speed of light in a plane perpendicular to the angular momentum. Since the radial pulses propagate at the speed of light, it is likely that at a certain moment the peripheral velocity together with the neutron pulsation will reach this speed. For a purely peripheral speed, we arrive at the value of the rotation speed mentioned above. Further, suppose that during the expansion phase a pulse is sent out, as some form of energy. The intensity of the pulse then decreases with the first power of the distance from the point of sending the pulse. The combination of radial pulses from all particles then creates a space with a certain density of these pulses. A rotating particle that pulsates with a huge frequency in such a space becomes very sensitive to its homogeneity. This space creates a back pressure for such a particle, which counteracts the pulsation. If the space is not homogeneous, the particle then pulsates more intensely on the side with lower back pressure, which causes the particle to start moving into the space with higher back pressure.
Proton
Under Earth conditions, the neutron is unstable. The lifetime of a free neutron outside the atomic nucleus is about 880 s. The question is whether the neutron reacts to heat? If we compare the molar heat capacities of Helium, Neon and Argon, which do not form gas molecules, but are only in atomic form, see the table:
Molar heat capacity of the noble gases
As evident from the table above, the count of nucleons has no impact on heat molar capacity. Neither the neutron nor the proton seems to react to heat. Another parameter is probably responsible for the instability of the neutron. The free neutron decays into a proton and an electron, and forms a hydrogen atom. According to the current theory, a proton is positively charged and an electron is negatively charged. But it is not at all clear where the electron is split off from the neutron, where the localized charges are, or how the information about the charges is transmitted through space. So, we will continue the reasoning from the previous chapter. Assume that the free neutron after leaving the nucleus has much more energy than it can absorb. Its rotation and pulsation gradually increase until it exceeds the imaginary strength of the flywheel. The electron is therefore most likely to be formed from the most stressed matter, and that is precisely the material on the circumference in the center of the neutron. An electron is about 1840 times lighter than a neutron. If we assumed their same “density”, then in the shape of a sphere the radius of the electron would be about 12 times smaller than the radius of the neutron. By separating of the electron, the neutron is split into two parts as shown in the folowwing picture and a proton is created, the radial pulses of which is thus divided into two parts with a gap in the middle. At the same time, the geometry will change. A proton has a smaller radius but is wider in the axial direction. In addition, it will begin to pulsate internally axially.
Proton pulsation
The electron is confined in the gap between pulses.
Proton-electron bond
Electrons are strongly bound in atoms and the ionization energies for their separation are really high. Electron is held in the gap of the proton radial pulses. In this arrangement, the electron radial pulses directed at the proton do not collide with the proton radial pulses directed at the electron. The radial pulses of the electron thus interact with the internal axial pulsation of the proton. And the radial pulses of the proton interact with the axial pulsation of the electron. This arrangement is much more efficient than if the radial pulses of both particles interacted with each other because the reaction surface is much larger. An radial pulse at the point of interaction will limit the pulsation of the particle, so in order to release the same amount of energy, it must pulsate more intensively symmetrically on the opposite side of the interaction, exactly by the amount by which it was forced to pulsate less at the point of interaction. So, as a result, the radial pulse might appear to have passed through the particle. This is true only energetically, but actually the geometry of the pulse has changed. As can be seen from the following picture. The uneven distribution of the particle’s pulsation intensity then causes the particle to develop a force that pushes it against the incoming radial pulse.
Proton and electron pulsation
In this case, however, the energy of the radial pulse of the proton interacting with the electron is much higher than the electron is able to absorb and transform. The excess energy thus pushes it further away from the proton. The energy of the proton radial pulse decreases with the first power of the distance from the proton. Thus, the electron is pushed to a distance where the force repelling the electron from the proton and the attractive force resulting from the interaction of the electron with the radial proton pulsation are balanced. Electron then oscillates around this equilibrium state. Since the radial proton pulse hits both axial surfaces of the neutron equally, the electron is pushed from both sides into the center of the radial proton pulse. This ensures that the electron is constantly held in the gap of radial proton pulses even during the motion of the proton. The movement of the electron is thus limited only to the radial direction.
The electron held in the gap follows the motion of the proton
This configuration also allows the electron to control the proton if its configuration in the nucleus allows it. For example, during chemical reactions, crystallizations, etc. if an electron hits a radial proton pulse of another atom, the electron tends to turn in the direction of the incoming pulse. It thus directs the radial electron pulses to the opposite part of its own proton and, according to the above-described principle, it tilts towards the electron.
The electron uses its pulses to make the proton to turn
The electron uses its pulses to make the proton to turn
Neutron-proton-electron bond
Bond neutron-proton is in the fact very similar to bond proton-electron. The same rules apply in both cases, except for one thing. Due to its size, the neutron is able to fully interact with the proton radial pulse and vice versa. The result of this interaction is a strong mutual attraction. Their mutual interaction is shown in the following figure.
Neutron-proton interaction
The area for the electron is marked in green.
The consequence of this interaction is that the intensity of the radial proton pulse on the side away from the neutron is higher by the contribution of the neutron which will also change its geometry. As a result of this interaction, the equilibrium point for the electron is moved further from the proton.
Weak and strong radial proton pulses
Black – strong narrow radial proton pulse, for example alkali metals
Red – weak broad radial proton pulse, for example halogens
By combining both parameters, the intensity and width of the radial proton pulse, the properties of both the electron orbital and the nature of the chemical bond can be changed. An ionic chemical bond is formed by a combination of an intense and narrow radial pulse with a wide and weak radial pulse. Conversely, a covalent chemical bond is formed by radial pulses of similar properties.
The other main interactions between particles
The resulting interaction between two particles depends on several main parameters. These include the geometry of the individual particles and thus also their pulses, the size of the particles, the angle of interaction, the exact location on the particle that interacts, the combination of axial or radial pulses and pulsations, possible fixation of the particle in the system, etc. E.g. theoretically, two free electrons in space will attract each other, but if they are located in a radial proton pulse that compresses them in the axial direction, their mutual interaction is significantly limited and the result is that they repel each other. Therefore, it is necessary to assess each interaction in the atoms individually, as will be commented for each individual isotopic nucleus of the element in the next chapter.
The strongest radial interaction is between a proton and a neutron as explained above. The radial interaction between two protons or neutrons is significantly smaller, moreover, since it is the interaction of the radial part of the particle, this interaction does not have directional stability and these particles tend to slip out of this interaction.
Axial pulses of the particle propagate much more slowly and have much less intensity and range. On the other hand, it is likely that their intensity decreases much more slowly with distance from the particle than in the case of radial pulses. But even these have their contribution in the nuclear power game. Outside the nucleus of the atom are e.g. responsible for the form of hydrogen crystallization at temperatures below about 13 K, when the thermal energy of the atoms is lower than the interaction energy in the axial direction. The hydrogen atom is surrounded by six other atoms in the radial direction, while in the axial direction it is always surrounded by one on each side.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen#/media/File:Hexagonal.svg
