Crystals
Crystal bonds are weaker than chemical bonds. When a material is heated, these bonds break first, which is usually accompanied by a change in the state of matter. Unlike chemical bonds, they do not necessarily consist of bonds between protons, but use all possible combinations that contribute to the stability and strength of the crystal. There can be many such combinations, but only some are always used. This is the reason why some substances form multiple crystal modifications. To demonstrate the crystal bonds, I chose the crystal TIO2 in the form of rutile. The other two forms of TiO2 are anatase and brookite.
(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titanium_dioxide#/media/File:Rutile-unit-cell-3D-balls.png)
A 3D model of Titan can be found in the chapter “3D higher atomic nuclei configuration”. First, we will analyze the titanium atom based on the previously described properties. Based on the analogy with silicon, we can assume that protons corresponding to s4 orbitals (according to the current classification) are not able to form a double bond. Therefore, two chemical bonds of the Ti-O-Ti type can be expected from each Ti atom. On the contrary, protons corresponding to d orbitals prefer the formation of a double bond. Using these assumptions, I have proposed a probable orientation of the Ti atom in the crystal model. In addition, oxygen models with probable orientations for the formation of a chemical or crystal bond are attached. It is very likely that the oxygen atoms will not be in the ground state as shown in the figure. The protons forming the single bond with Ti may be rotated and the angles between the individual atoms may be distorted within the scope of the possibility. If the oxygen atom were in its basic, most preferred configuration, the other two crystal forms of TiO2 would probably not exist. Therefore, mainly the binding possibilities of the Ti atom are explained. I have used arrows to show which bond in the crystal model corresponds to the location or bond on the lower atomic model. The arrows are marked with letters, each bond is commented on under the image according to its letter.
Figure 51. TiO2 crystal model
A – According to the crystal model, this should be the shortest, therefore the strongest, and therefore most likely a chemical double bond. It is formed by a d-pair of the titanium proton and a more reactive oxygen proton pair.
B – This bond, on the other hand, is longer, and therefore weaker. It is a crystal bond between the d neutrons of Titan and the less reactive pair of protons of oxygen.
C – These are very likely two simple chemical bonds of s4 protons of Titan with oxygen protons.
D – These are very likely two simple crystal bonds of s4 neutrons of Titan with less reactive protons of oxygen.
Using only chemical bonds, the TiO2 chain would look something like this:
Gas
As mentioned above, the main property of a radial, but to a lesser extent also an axial pulse, is the repulsion of other particles from the vicinity of the pulse source. Another obvious property of most atoms and molecules is their imbalance. As soon as they are released from their bonds, for example by converting them into a gaseous state, they become very restless. They immediately start rotating or moving. If we wanted to perform measurements on such an object, we would only get an average signal. This is the case, for example, not only of the reaction to gravity or a magnetic field, but also of the repulsion of its surroundings in the entire 3D space. This repulsion is greater the more particles it contains. We can say that it is proportional to the mass of the object. On the other hand, it is also proportional to the temperature. So if we had two objects of different masses, then we can assume that at the same temperature the more massive object will rotate more slowly. At the same time, the ability of an object to resist repulsion by another object increases with its mass. As a result, the effect of the mass of the individual objects almost cancels out, which is in accordance with Avogadro’s law. In simple terms, this explains why one mole of an ideal gas always occupies the same volume, i.e. 22.414 L under standard conditions. The assumption of high spin in the free state also applies to simple particles such as neutrons, electrons, and protons. Although they themselves exhibit a high degree of symmetry, the environment in which they are found on Earth cannot be considered homogeneous from the perspective of such small particles.